CHAPTER VIII

OF THE SEVENTH COMMANDMENT

THOU SHALT NOT STEAL

QUESTION I

How great is the Importance of this Commandment, and its Connection with the two preceding ones

That it was the ancient custom of the Church, to impress on the faithful the nature and force of this commandment, we may learn from the reproof uttered by the apostle against some, who were most earnest in deterring others from vices, with which they themselves were found overwhelmed: Thou therefore, says he, which teachest another, teachest thou not thyself? thou that preachest a man should not steal, dost thou steal? The salutary effect of such instruction was, not only to correct a vice prevalent in those times, but also to repress turbulence and litigation, and other causes of mischiefs, which usually arise from theft. As these our days also are unhappily involved in the same delinquency, and in its consequent mischiefs and calamities, the pastor, following the example of the holy Fathers, and masters of Christian discipline, will urge this matter, and will explain with care and diligence the force and meaning of this commandment. And first, his care and diligence will be exercised in setting forth the infinite love of God to man, who, not satisfied with having, as it were, fenced round our lives, our persons, our fame, and reputation, by means of these two prohibitions: Thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not commit adultery; he, as it were, places an external guard over, and defends, our means and property, by this precept, Thou shalt not steal.

QUESTION II

What is the Meaning further implied in this Precept

For what other meaning can these words have, than that which we already mentioned in expounding the other precepts, that by this commandment God forbids our worldly goods, which are placed under his protection, to be taken away or injured by any one? Our gratitude to God, its Author, should therefore be proportioned to the magnitude of the benefit conferred on us by this divine law; and, as the truest test of feeling and of showing gratitude [to God,] consists not only in lending a willing ear to his precepts, but also in giving practical proof [by our conduct], the faithful are to be excited and ardently animated to the observance of this commandment. Like the preceding ones, this precept also divides itself into two parts: the one, which prohibits theft, is mentioned in express terms: of the other, by which we are exhorted to kindliness and liberality towards our neighbours, the spirit and force are implied and involved in the former. We shall, therefore, begin with the first: Thou shalt not steal.

QUESTION III

Definition of “Theft”

It is to be observed, that by the word theft is understood not only the taking away of anything from its rightful owner, privately and without his consent, but also the possession of anything belonging to another, contrary to the will, although not without the knowledge of the owner, unless perchanee we are to suppose, that he who prohibits theft, does not prohibit rapine, which is accomplished by violence and injustice; whereas, according to the apostle, extortioners shall not inherit the kingdom of God; and the same apostle declares, that the manner of life and society of such persons is altogether to be shunned.

QUESTION IV

Since God here wishes to prohibit all Unjust Usurpation of another Man’s Property, why Theft is mentioned in the Commandment rather than Rapine

Although rapine, which, besides the deprivation of his property, offers violence to the injured party, and subjects him to greater ignominy, is a more grievous sin than theft; yet we cannot be surprised, nor is it without the best reason, that the precept of the divine law is expressed under the name of theft, not rapine; for theft is more wide and comprehensive than rapine; a crime of which they alone can be guilty, who are superior in power and force. No one, however, can fail to perceive, that when lesser crimes of the same sort are forbidden, greater enormities are also prohibited.

QUESTION V

Different Denominations of Theft

The unjust possession and use of what belongs to another are expressed by different names, according to the different nature of the things stolen from their masters, either against their will, or without their knowledge. To take anything private from a private individual is called theft; from the public, peculation: to enslave and appropriate the freeman or slave of another is called man-stealing: to steal anything sacred is called sacrilege, a crime the most sinful and enormous; yet now of so common occurrence, that things which had been piously and wisely appropriated to the necessities of divine worship, to the support of the ministers of the Church, and to the use of the poor, are employed in satisfying individual cupidity, and ministering to depraved passions.

QUESTION VI

They who really possess another Man’s Property are not the only Transgressors of this Precept

But, besides actual theft, that is, the outward act, the will and desire are also forbidden by the law of God; for the law is spiritual, and regards the soul, the source of our thoughts and designs: Out of the heart, says our Lord in St. Matthew, proceed evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornications, thefts, false witness.

QUESTION VII

Whence we may best estimate the Grievousness of the Sin of Theft

But how grievous a sin theft is, is sufficiently seen by the light of natural reason alone; seeing it is contrary to justice, which gives to every man his own; for in order that every man, unless we wish to dissolve human society, may securely possess what has justly fallen to his lot, it is necessary to give stability to the distribution and allotments of property, which have been constituted from the very origin of society by the law of nations, and confirmed by divine and human laws. Hence these words of the apostle: Nor thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor extortioners, shall inherit the kingdom of God. The long train of evils, however, consequent upon theft, attest at once its mischievousness and enormity. Many hasty and rash judgments arise touching various matters; hatreds are engendered; enmities originated; and sometimes the innocent are subjected to the most cruel condemnation.

QUESTION VIII

Necessity of Restitution of the Things taken away

What shall we say touching the necessity imposed by God on all, of giving satisfaction to him to whom the injury has been done? The sin is not forgiven, says St. Augustine, unless that which was taken be restored. The great difficulty attendant on making such restitution, on the part of those who have been in the habit of enriching themselves with other men’s property, we may learn not only from the habits of others and from our own reflection, but also from the testimony of the prophet Habakkuk: Woe to him, saith he, that increaseth that which is not his: and to him that loadeth himself with thick clay? The possession of other men’s property, he calls thick clay, from which it is difficult for men to emerge and disengage themselves. But such is the variety of thefts, that it is most difficult to enumerate them all: to these two heads, theft and rapine, as to their source, all others however may be reduced; and the exposition of these two will therefore suffice. To inspire, therefore, a detestation of them, and to deter the faithful people from wicked enormities, pastors must bestow their whole care and assiduity. But let us proceed with the details on this head.

QUESTION IX

What are the Chief Kinds of Theft, and who are to be reckoned among Thieves

They, therefore, who buy stolen goods, or retain the property of others, whether found, seized on, or pilfered, are also thieves: If thou hast found, and not restored, saith St. Augustine, thou hast stolen. If, however, the owner of the property cannot at all be discovered, the things found should then go to the use of the poor; and if the finder refuse to yield them up, he gives evident proof, that, were it in his power, he would make no scruple of stealing in all directions to any extent. They who, in buying or selling goods, have recourse to fraud and cheating words, involve themselves in the same guilt: the Lord will avenge their frauds. But those who, for good and sound merchandise, sell bad and unsound, or who deceive the buyers by weight, measure, number, or rule, are guilty of a theft still more criminal and unjust, for we read in Deuteronomy: Thou shalt not have divers weights in thy bag; and in Leviticus: Ye shall do no unrighteousness, in judgment, in mete yard, in weight, or in measure. Just balances, just weights, a just ephah, and a just hin, and elsewhere: Divers weights are an abomination unto the Lord: and a false balance is not good.

It is also an open theft, when labourers and artisans exact full and entire wages from those, to whom they have not given just and due labour. Nor are unfaithful servants and stewards to be distinguished from thieves; nay, they are more detestable than other thieves, against whom things are locked, whilst to a pilfering servant nothing in a house can be inaccessible. They also, who extort money under false pretences, by deceitful words or fallacious mendicancy, may be said to be guilty of theft; and their guilt is aggravated by adding falsehood to theft. Persons charged with offices of public or private trust, who pay none, or but indifferent attention to the duties, whilst they enjoy the remuneration and emoluments of such offices, are also to be reckoned in the number of thieves. To detail the various other modes of theft, invented by the ingenuity of avarice, which is versed in all the arts of gleaning money together, were a tedious, and, as we said, a very difficult task.

QUESTION X

Of the Kinds of Rapine, and who are to be called Extortioners

The pastor, therefore, will proceed to treat of rapine, the other general head, to which the sins prohibited by this commandment are reducible, first admonishing the Christian people, to bear in mind the saying of the apostle: They that will be rich, fall into temptation and a snare; and never to forget the precept: All things whatsoever you would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them; and always to keep in view the maxim: Do that to no man which thou hatest. Rapine, then, is more comprehensive than theft; for those, who pay not the labourer his hire, are guilty of rapine, and are invited to repentance by St. James in these words: Go to, now, ye rich men, weep and howl for your miseries that shall come upon you: he subjoins the cause of this their repentance; for, Behold, says he, the hire of the labourers, who have reaped down your fields, which is of you kept back by fraud, crieth, and the cries of them which have reaped are entered into the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth. This sort of rapine is reprobated in the strongest terms in Leviticus, Deuteronomy, Malachi, and Tobias. Amongst those guilty of rapine are also included persons who do not pay, or who turn to other uses, or appropriate to themselves, customs, taxes, tithes, and such revenues, which are due to those who preside over the Church, and to the civil magistrates.

QUESTION XI

Usury is Rapine; of its Wickedness

To this class also belong usurers, the most cruel and relentless of extortioners, who by their usuries plunder and destroy the unhappy people. Now usury is whatever is received above the principal, whether it be money, or anything else that may be purchased or estimated by money; for it is written in Ezekiel: He hath not received usury, nor increase; and in Luke, our Lord says: Lend, hoping for nothing again. Even amongst the Gentiles [usury] was always considered a most grievous and odious crime; and hence the question, what is usury? which was answered by asking, what is murder? For they who lend at usury sell the same thing twice, or sell that which has no existence.

QUESTION XII

Corrupt Judges, and those who defraud their Creditors, are guilty of Rapine

Corrupt judges, whose decisions are venal, and who, bought over by money or bribes, decide against the poor and the necessitous, however good their cause, are also guilty of rapine. Those who defraud their creditors, and deny their just debts, and also those who purchase goods on their own or on another’s credit, with an engagement to pay for them at a certain time, and do not redeem their pledge, shall be convicted of the same crime of rapine; and it is an aggravation of their guilt that, in consequence of their want of punctuality and their fraud, things are raised in price, to the no small detriment of the public. To such persons David would seem to allude, when he says: The wicked borroweth, and payeth not again.

QUESTION XIII

The Rich who oppress the Poor, having taken Pledges of them, are numbered among the Rapacious

But what shall we say of those who, themselves being rich, exact with rigour what they lend to the poor, who have not wherewithal to pay them, and who take as pledges even their necessary covering, in defiance of the divine prohibition? If thou at all take thy neighbour’s raiment to pledge, thou shalt deliver it unto him by that the sun goeth down, for that is his covering only; it is his raiment for his skin, wherein shall he sleep; and it shall come to pass, when he crieth to me, that I will hear, for I am gracious. Their rigorous exaction we shall justly term rapacity, and even rapine.

QUESTION XIV

Monopolists in Time of Scarcity are rapacious

Amongst those whom the holy Fathers pronounced guilty of rapine, are those persons who, in times of scarcity, store up their corn, thus culpably producing dearth and high prices; and this also holds good with regard to all necessaries of food, and the purposes of life. These are they against whom Solomon utters the execration, He that withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him. Such persons pastors will admonish of their guilt, and reprove with more than ordinary freedom, and will explain to them more at large the punishments that await their offence. So far for the negative part of the precept. We now come to the positive part, in which the first thing to be considered is satisfaction or restitution; for the sin is not forgiven, unless what was taken be restored.

QUESTION XV

Who are bound to Restitution

But, as the law of restitution is binding not only on the person who has committed theft, but also on all who are participators therein, we must explain who are indispensably bound to this act of satisfaction or restitution. These form a variety of classes. The first consists of those men who order others to steal, and who are not only themselves the authors and accomplices of theft, but also the very worst class of thieves. Another class embraces those who, like the former in will, but unlike them in power, are, however, to be placed in the same rank with thieves—who, unable to command, persuade and encourage others to commit theft. A third class is that of those who consent to theft committed by others. The fourth class is that of those who are accomplices in, and derive gain from, theft; if that can be called gain which, unless they repent, consigns them to everlasting torments. Of them David says: When thou sawest a thief, thou consentedst with him. The fifth class of thieves are those who, having it in their power to prohibit thefts, so far from opposing or preventing them, suffer and sanction their free commission. The sixth class is composed of those who, well aware that the theft was committed, and where it was committed, yet, far from discovering, dissemble their knowledge of the fact. The seventh, and last, embraces all who assist in the accomplishment of theft—who guard, patronize, receive, or shelter thieves, all of whom are bound to make satisfaction to those from whom anything has been stolen, and are earnestly to be exhorted to the discharge of that necessary duty. Nor are those who approve and applaud thefts entirely exempt from this crime; neither are children and wives, who purloin money from their parents and husbands, free from the same fault.

QUESTION XVI

What is to he thought concerning Alms, an Obligation implied by this Commandment

In this commandment is also implied pity towards the poor and the necessitous, and an effort on our part for the relief of their difficulties and distresses from our means, and by our offices. On this subject—which is to be treated very frequently and copiously—pastors, to enable themselves, to fulfil this duty, will borrow matter from the works of those very holy men, St. Cyprian, John Chrysostom, Gregory Nazianzen, and other eminent writers on alms-deeds. For the faithful are to be inflamed with a desire and with alacrity to succour those who depend on the compassion of others for subsistence. They are also to be taught the great necessity of alms-deeds, that with our means and by our co-operation we may be liberal to the poor, and this by the very true argument that, on the day of the last judgment, God will abhor those who shall have omitted or neglected the offices of charity, and hurl against them the sentence of condemnation to everlasting flames; but will invite, in the language of praise, and introduce into their heavenly country, those who have acted kindly towards the poor. Their respective sentences have already been pronounced by the lips of Christ our Lord: Come, ye blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you; and: Depart from, me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire.

QUESTION XVII

By what Means the People are to be incited to Alms-Deeds

Pastors will also employ those texts of Scripture most calculated to persuade to this duty: Give and it shall be given unto you: they will cite the promise of God, than which even imagination can picture no remuneration more abundant, none more magnificent: There is no man that hath left house, or brethren, &c., but he shall receive a hundredfold now in this time, and in the world to come eternal life; and he will add these words of our Lord: Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness, that when ye fail they may receive you into everlasting habitations. But they will explain the different heads of this necessary duty, to wit, that whoever are unable to give, may at least lend to the necessitous wherewithal to sustain life, according to the injunction of Christ our Lord: Lend, hoping for nothing again. The happiness attendant on such an exercise of mercy, holy David attests: A good man showeth favour and lendeth.

QUESTION XVIII

We must labour to bestow Alms and to avoid Idleness

But it is an act of Christian piety, should it not be in our power otherwise to deserve well of those who stand in need of the pity of others for sustenance, to seek by the labour of our hands to procure means of relieving the wants of the indigent, and also thus to avoid idleness. To this the apostle exhorts all by his own example: For yourselves, saith he, writing to the Thessalonians, know how ye ought to follow us; and again, to the same: And that ye study to be quiet, and to do your own business, and to work with your own hands, as we commanded you; and to the Ephesians: Let him that stole steal no more, but rather let him labour, working with his hands the thing which is good, that he may have to give to him that needeth.

QUESTION XIX

We must live sparingly in order to aid the Wants of Others

We should also practise frugality, and draw sparingly on the means of others, that we may not be a burden or a trouble to them. This exercise of temperance shines conspicuous in all the apostles, but pre-eminently so in St. Paul, who, writing to the Thessalonians, says: Ye remember, brethren, our labour and travail, for labouring night and day because we would not be chargeable unto any of you, we preached unto you the Gospel of God; and in another place: But wrought with labour and travail, night and day, that we might not be chargeable to any of you.

QUESTION XX

By what Arguments the Christian People are to be induced to the Detestation of Rapine and the Practice of Benevolence

But to the end that the faithful people may abhor all such infamous crimes, pastors will recur to the prophets and other sacred writings, to show the detestation in which God holds the crimes of theft and rapine, and the awful threats which he sets forth against their perpetrators: Hear this, exclaims the prophet Amos, O ye that swallow tip the needy, even to make the poor of the land to fail, saying, When will the new moon be gone, that we may sell corn, and the Sabbath, that we may set forth wheat, making the ephah small, and the shekel great, and falsifying the balances by deceit. There are also many passages in Jeremiah, Proverbs, and Ecclesiasticus, to the same effect; and these, without doubt, are the seeds from which have sprung great part of the evils, with which in our times society is oppressed. But that Christian men may accustom themselves to every office of liberality and kindness towards the poor and the mendicant, an exercise of benevolence appertaining to the second part of this commandment, pastors will place before them those most ample rewards, which God promises to bestow in this life and in the next, upon the beneficent and the bountiful.

QUESTION XXI

What is to be thought of those who excuse Theft and Sacrilege by a Futile Pretext

As however there are not wanting those, who would even excuse their thefts, they are to be admonished that the time will come, when God will accept no excuse for their sin; nay, that their excuses, so far from extenuating, will serve greatly to aggravate their guilt. Behold the insufferable luxury of noblemen, who fancy they extenuate their guilt by alleging, that, if they stoop to strip another of what belongs to him, they are actuated not by cupidity or avarice, but by a desire to maintain the grandeur of their families, and the rank of their ancestors, whose estimation and dignity would fall, if not upheld by the accession of other men’s property. Of this pernicious error they must be disabused; and must at the same time be convinced, that the sole means of preserving and augmenting their property and wealth, and of enhancing the glory of their ancestors, is to obey the will of God, to observe his commandments; and that, his will and commandments once contemned, wealth, however solidly based and excellently established, is overturned; kings are hurled from their royal thrones, and from the highest pinnacle of honour, whilst the humblest individuals, men too whom they held in supreme hatred, are sometimes called by God to occupy their places. It is incredible to what a degree the wrath of God is kindled against such offenders; and this we know from the testimony of Isaiah, who records these words of God himself: Thy princes are rebellious and companions of thieves: every one loveth gifts, and followeth after rewards. Therefore, saith the Lord, the Lord of Hosts, the Mighty One of Israel: Ah! I will ease me of mine adversaries, and avenge me of mine enemies; and I will turn my hand upon thee, and purely purge away thy dross.

QUESTION XXII

In what manner we must answer those who assert that they are driven to Rapine from Considerations of Utility

There are not wanting those who plead in justification, not the maintenance of splendour and glory, but a wish to have the means of living with greater convenience and elegance. Such excuses are also to be refuted; and they are to be taught how impious is the conduct and language of those, who prefer any advantage to the will and glory of God, against which we offend in an extraordinary degree by neglect of his precepts. And yet, what advantage can there be in theft, which is the source of the greatest evils? Confusion and repentance, says Ecclesiasticus, is upon a thief. But, suppose no disadvantage befall the thief, he dishonours the divine name; opposes the most holy will of God; contemns his salutary precepts; from which source flows all error, all dishonesty, all impiety.

QUESTION XXIII

What is to be said of those who defend their Thefts on the Grounds that they rob the Rich, or on a Plea of Habit

But, do we not sometimes hear the thief contend, that he is in nowise guilty of sin, because he steals from the rich and the wealthy, who do not suffer any injury from, nor even perceive, the loss? Such an excuse is as wretched as it is baneful. Another imagines that his plea should be deemed satisfactory, when he alleges that he has been so familiarized. with stealing, as not easily to be able to conquer the propensity or desist from the practice. If such a person listen not to the apostle, saying: Let him that stole, steal no more, he will be familiarized, will or nill, with everlasting torments.

QUESTION XXIV

What again is to be said of those who profess to be induced to thieve either through Opportunity or through the Lust of Revenge

Some excuse themselves by saying, that they stole, because a favourable opportunity presented itself; for it is a trite proverb, that they who are not thieves, become thieves through opportunity. Such persons are to be dissuaded and deterred from so wicked an opinion, by reminding them, that it is our duty to resist evil propensities; for, were we forthwith to execute the suggestions of inordinate desire, what limits, what end, to criminal and flagitious excesses? Such a defence, therefore, displays extreme baseness, or rather is an avowal of consummate licentiousness and injustice; for to say that you do not commit sin, because you have no opportunity of sinning, is almost to acknowledge, that you are always prepared to sin when opportunity presents. There are those who say they steal in order to gratify revenge, having themselves suffered the same injury at the hands of others. In answer to such offenders, the pastor will first urge the unlawfulness of returning injury for injury; and next that no one ought to be a judge in his own cause; and that still less can it be lawful for a man to punish one man for the crimes of others against him.

QUESTION XXV

What is to be said of those who Steal in order to be freed from Debt

Finally, some find a sufficient justification of theft in the plea, that being overwhelmed with debts, they cannot pay them off otherwise than by theft. Such persons should be told that no debt is heavier, none more oppressive upon the human race, than that from which, each day of our lives, we pray to be released, in these words of the Lord’s Prayer: Forgive us our debts; and to swell the debt which we owe to God, that is, to sin more, in order to liquidate that which is due to man, is the height of folly; that it is much better to be cast into prison than to be consigned to the never-ending torments of hell; that it is also by far a greater evil to be condemned by the judgment of God, than by that of men; and moreover, that they should fly as suppliants to the assistance and mercy of God, from whom they can obtain what they have need of. There are other sorts of excuses, which prudent and zealous pastors will find it easy to meet; that they may one day be blessed with A people, zealous of good works.